Black pepper (Piper nigrum), the king of spices, is one of the oldest and the most popular spice in the world. It is a perennial, climbing vine indigenous to the Malabar Coast of India. The hotly pungent spice made from its berries is one of the earliest spices known and is probably the most widely used spice in the world today. It was mentioned as far back as 1000 BC in ancient Sanskrit literature. In early historic times black pepper was widely cultivated in the tropics of Southeast Asia, where it became an important article of overland trade between India and Europe. It became a medium of exchange, and tributes were levied in black pepper in ancient Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages the Venetian and the Genoese became the main distributors, their virtual monopoly of the trade helping to instigate the search for an eastern sea route. The name pepper comes from the Sanskrit word pippali meaning berry.
Apart from India, black pepper is widely cultivated throughout Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, tropica Africa, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and China also. It is a branching vine with a smooth, woody, articulate stem swollen at the joints. A woody climber, it may reach heights of 10m by means of its aerial roots. Its broad, shiny green, pointed , petiolate leaves are alternately arranged. The sessile, white, small flowers are borne in pendulous, dense, slender spikes of about 50 blossoms each. The berry-like fruits, or peppercorns, are round, about 0.5 - 1.0 cm in diameter and contain a single seed. They become yellowish red at maturity and bear a single seed. The odour is penetrating and aromatic; the taste is hot, biting and very pungent.
Culture Practice Global
The plant requires a long rainy season, fairly high temperatures, and partial shade for the best growth. Propagation is usually by stem cuttings. The cuttings are set out near a tree or a pole that will serve as a support. Black pepper plants are sometimes interspersed in tea or coffee plantations. They begin bearing in 2 to 5 years and may produce for as long as 40 years. The berries are picked when they begin to turn red. The collected berries are scalded with boiling water for about 10 minutes, which causes them to turn dark brown or black in an hour. Then they are spread out to dry in the sun for three or four days. The whole peppercorns, when ground, yield black pepper.
White pepper is obtained by removing the outer part of the pericarp of the ripened berries. The outer coating is softened either by keeping the berries in moist heaps fir 2 or 3 days or by keeping them in sacks submerged in running water for 7 to 15 days, depending on the region. The softened outer coating is then removed by washing and rubbing or by trampling, and the berries are spread in the sun to dry. Whole white pepper can also be prepared by grinding off the outer coating mechanically. The flavour is less pungent than that of black pepper. Green pepper are immature berries freeze dried or mechanically air dried. They are available pickled in brine or vinegar.
Black and white pepper have two main components, the volatile oil and the pungent components, commonly known as piperine. Black pepper contains about 0.6 - 2.6 % essential oil that has the aromatic flavour of black pepper but not the pungency. The level varies depending on the source, maturity and variety. Of the 100 different components in the essential oil, the main ones are a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-a-phellandrene, b-caryophyllene, limonene and sabine-delta-3-carene. The main pungency principle is piperine,the trans, trans form of 1-piperoylpiperidine. Other minor pungent alkaloids are piperidine, piperettine, piperyline, piperanine and piperolein A and B.
Soil
Black pepper grows well on soils ranging from heavy clay to light sandy clays rich in humus with friable nature, well drained, but with ample water holding capacity. Soil with near neutral PH, high organic matter and high base saturation with Ca and Mg enhance the productivity. Soil for black pepper cultivation require 0.26% N, 0.25% P 2 O 5, 0.41% K2 O, 0.18% M g O and 0.5% CaO. Soils with pH above 7.5 inhibit growth. However, growth of the variety Panniyur 1 was the highest at pH 7.8 and 8.1. Water logged soils and diseased soils are not suitable for black pepper cultivation. Well drained loamy soils rich in humus nourish the crop well and the best crop could be obtained in virgin forest soil.
Climate Requirement
Black pepper grows successfully between 200 North and 200 South of equator and from sea level to 1500 MSL. It is a plant of humid tropics, requiring 2000-3000 mm of rainfall, tropical temperature and high relative humidity with little variation in day length throughout the year. Black pepper does not tolerate excessive heat and dryness.
Temperature
The crop tolerates temperature between 10-40 o C. The ideal temperature is 23-32 o C with an average of 28 degree c. Optimum soil temperature for root growth is 26-28 o C.
Area and Production Global
World Pepper production, as per International Pepper Community (IPC) projection, of around 300,000 metric tons during 2003 is dominated by Asia region accounting for 65-70% of total production. The region caters for three-quarters of the total export market.
This facts clearly portray the importance that the Asian region has in the world pepper trade. Changing global scenario has reduced the globe into a single market. Growing business needs is drawing people closer into single market place. In fact, not too long ago – about two centuries ago – traders from western world traveled entire globe in search of business. And, if the history has anything to do with – they came to eastern shore with purpose of making trade, more precisely in search of ‘spices’.
The International Pepper Community (IPC) has estimated that the world production of pepper for the year 2003 was around 327250 tons. India’s share in world production was 20% of the total and the estimated export during the year was 17,200 tonnes accounting 7.5% of the world export.
Country-wise Area, production and Yield of pepper
India dominates world pepper market given its consumption and production pattern. However, Asian countries such as Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia are the major exporting countries. India exports about 10% of the global pepper demand. US is the largest importer of pepper in the world followed by European market.
Export from Asian region accounts for 78% of the total export market which is estimated at 194,000 tons.
Prices Global
Pepper prices over the years have been declining following the heavy output and high ending stocks. World production has grown 50,000 tons in the last five years. Vietnam, Indonesia and Brazil have been leading the production growth. Consumption, on the other hand, has failed to keep up pace with the growth in production. As a result, pepper prices have plunged considerably. Origin and variety are the two factors that determine pepper prices. High preference is given to pepper produced in India, but abundant production of other quality pepper and at cheap rate has always played on the prices of this commodity.
Overview India
Pepper plant is a native of the Malabar Coast in Kerala. It played a major role in luring the colonial power, which subjugated India for centuries. The British even took pepper to other countries for cultivation to ensure an uninterrupted supply.
At present India accounts for more than 20 per cent of the world output of pepper and is also one of the largest consumer and exporter of pepper. Of the various varieties, the black garbled pepper is the major item of export from India. The other forms of pepper exported include long pepper, light black and pinheads, black ungarbled pepper, dehydrated green pepper, pepper pinheads, freeze dried green pepper, frozen pepper, white pepper and crushed/ground pepper. Kerala is the largest producer of pepper accounting for over 95 per cent of India’s total output.
Pepper is cultivated in Kerala in Idukki, Kottayam, Cannanore, Calicut and Wayanad. Pepper is also cultivated in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, A&N Islands and Pondicherry. In recent years, other states like Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, etc. have also started showing interest in taking up the cultivation of pepper. In fact, its cultivation on a commercial scale in Andaman & Nicobar islands was taken up only about 10-12 years back.
Culture Practice India
Black pepper grows successfully between 200 North and 200 South of equator and from sea level to 1500 MSL. It is a plant of humid tropics, requiring 2000-3000 mm of rainfall, tropical temperature and high relative humidity with little variation in day length throughout the year. Black pepper does not tolerate excessive heat and dryness.
Rainfall and relative humidity
Total rainfall and its distribution play an important role in black pepper cultivation and productivity. An annual rainfall of 2000 mm with uniform distribution is ideal. Rainfall of 70 mm received in 20 days during May-June is sufficient for triggering off flushing and flowering processes in the plant. But once the process is set off there should be continuous shower until fruit ripening. Any dry spell even for a few day, with this critical period of 16 weeks (flowering to fruit ripening) will result in low yield. . In India black pepper growing areas receive 1500 mm to more than 4000 mm rainfall. Rainfall after stress induces profuse flowering. Growth of fruit bearing lateral shoots (plagiotrophs) and photosynthetic rate area are maximum during peak monsoon in India (June-July)/ A relative humidity of 60-95% is optimum at various stages of growth.
Soil
Black pepper grows well on soils ranging from heavy clay to light sandy clays rich in humus with friable nature, well drained, but with ample water holding capacity. Soil with near neutral PH, high organic matter and high base saturation with Ca and Mg enhance the productivity. Soil for black pepper cultivation require 0.26% N, 0.25% P 2 O 5, 0.41% K2 O, 0.18% M g O and 0.5% CaO. Soils with pH above 7.5 inhibit growth. However, growth of the variety Panniyur 1 was the highest at pH 7.8 and 8.1. Water logged soils and diseased soils are not suitable for black pepper cultivation. Well drained loamy soils rich in humus nourish the crop well and the best crop could be obtained in virgin forest soil.
Planting:
Prepare a pit of the size 50 x 50 x 50 c m before the onset of the monsoon and fill it up after the onset of monsoon with top soil + FYM [@10 kg] + Neem cake[1 kg] + bone meal and Rock phosphate [70 gms]. Wherever possible a large pit filled with alternate layers of coconut husk and the above mixture is preferable. This will help in conserving soil moisture and help the young plants to survive the hot summer. Planting can be done within 15 days of the filling of the pits.
Plant the cuttings in northern side of the standard. Two to three rooted cuttings of pepper are to be planted individually in the pits on the northern side of each standard. In the case of cuttings, which have not developed roots, about 4-5 cuttings with 4-5 nodes are to be planted. In gardens with grownup shade trees, up to 10 cuttings may be planted all around the living support .To ensure proper rooting at least, two nodes of the cuttings should be below the soil. The cuttings should not be positioned vertically, but semi-horizontally at an angle of 30 – 40. degree towards the standard. Artificial shade must be provided for the newly planted cuttings.
Spacing:
Optimum spacing is 3.0 x 3.0m in the plains. Such spacing accommodates 1100 standards/ha. The optimum spacing for planting pepper vines in sloppy land is 3 x 2m. A closer spacing of 2 x 2 can be adopted when non living standards are used.. . Water stagnation around the vines during rainy season should be avoided. The soil around the cutting should be formed into a small mound (5cm), slopping outward and away from the vines.
Watering
With the receipt of the monsoon in May-June, primary stem cuttings/seedlings of support trees are planted. Rooted cuttings of pepper are also planted during the opportune time. The young vines are protected from hot sun during summer by providing artificial shade. Adequate mulch with green leaf or organic matter needed to be applied around the base of the vines, without disturbing the root system. During summer months, if summer showers failed, watering is to be done at the rate of 100 litres per vine at weekly intervals. Watering is also needed and spike formation commenced towards better yields.
Weed control
2-3 rounds of hand weeding did in a year generally control weeds. Weed growth being intense during rainy months, a careful watch on flowering habit of weeds and pulling out of weeds before seeds spread of weeds will enable easy weed control. Weeded material can be mulched around the base of the vines and excess weed material ,if available can be spread all over the land in between the rows, of vines. During weeding, plant base should not be disturbed causing injury to the root system. During rainy season weeds pulled out can be heaped and spread out once dried. Slash weeding is a cost-effective method and to keep a cover always over the soil. Chemical weed control is not advocated which is harmful to the microflora and fauna although is a labour saving method. Soil application of chemicals kill the beneficial microorganisms and also injure pepper vines if chemicals borne during application.
Area and Production India
India harvests most of its pepper at the beginning of the year. During 2003, production of pepper in India was reported to be 65,000 tons against 80,000 tons in 2002.
Kerala accounts for 90% of India's pepper production. The other producers are Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
During 2003, Indian exports of pepper amounted to 17,200 tons, registering a 31% fall compared to exports of 24,914 tons in 2002. The export in 2003 was the lowest quantity of pepper exported from India during the last four decades. This quantity was only 64% of the average export over the last five years. In terms of export share, India contributed only 8% to total producing country exports in 2003, a fall from the 14% of average share during last five years.
Developments in the spice industry in India have significantly affected exports. During 2003, export of whole pepper from India was only 26% of the total production, against 31% during 2002. The main market for Malabar black was United States, which traditionally imported around 50% of India's exports, followed by Canada, Netherlands and Italy. However, during 2003, only 30% of India's export was shipped to the United States.
The trend analysis of Indian share in global pepper (table 2 ) shows no significant change in area while production share has decreased from 20.43% in 2000 to 13.91% in 2003.
India with 32000 T of average annual export (ranging from 19000-47000 T during the decade ended in 2000) continues to be a significant exporter of pepper. During this period, exports exceeded 47000 T in 1993 and 1999 and touched the low level of 19000 T in 1991 and 1992. Pepper had 43.65% value share of major spices exported from India during 1999-2000. However, of late i.e., during the period from 2001-02 to 2003-04, the export of pepper from India has shown a sliding trend.
India was the largest producer of black pepper before Vietnam overtook two years ago. Even though Indian pepper commands premium over other countries in terms of quality.
Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia and Brazil are among the producing countries along with the India. Major consumers include U.S. and European Union countries. When we consider the production of pepper during the last 12 years, the lowest production was in 1989 at 183,000 tons and highest was in 2001 at 282,519 tons. The production of pepper showed continues growth since 1998. In 1998 the production was 205,000 tons. It increased to 218340 tons in 1999. The production again increased to 254,210 in 2000. It further increased to 282,519 in 2001 and projection for 2002 is around 310,000 tons. (rough estimate).
Production of pepper from almost all-producing countries has contributed to the increase to the increase the global supply. The contribution of Vietnam to the increase in global supply is significant. Generally around 75% of production of pepper is exported. The consumption in producing countries except in India is insignificant. India consumes about 30 – 40,000 tons of pepper.
World exports of pepper also have shown increasing trend but not in proportion with the increase in production. The supply position has increased considerably whereas the demand remained static or achieved only nominal increase. As such the gap between the supply and demand has widened. As a result, the price has declined steeply in the recent years. Usually when there is an over supply, price will decrease, then the growers loose their interest, which will result in decrease in production. Then short supply position take place resulting in increase in price and more production. This cycle can be observed when we look in the historical figure for last 50 years. However the steep decline in pepper prices during the last 3 years cannot be explained purely in terms of increased supply. The pressure and unhealthy competition played an important role in the steep decline of prices.
· USA
· Singapore
· Germany
· Netherlands
· France and
· Japan
The working group on horticulture for the X plan has projected the national demand at 1,25,360 T by 2006-07.
India harvests most of its pepper at the beginning of the year. During 2003, production of pepper in India was reported to be 65,000 tons against 80,000 tons in 2002.
During 2003, Indian exports of pepper amounted to 17,200 tons, registering a 31% fall compared to exports of 24,914 tons in 2002. The export in 2003 was the lowest quantity of pepper exported from India during the last four decades. This quantity was only 64% of the average export over the last five years. In terms of export share, India contributed only 8% to total producing country exports in 2003, a fall from the 14% of average share during last five years.
Kerala accounts for 90% of India's pepper production. The other producers are Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
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